Chofunika Chanu 2025 Mankhwala a Inorganiac mankhwala: Chitsogozo 5 Mitundu ya Core

Chofupikitsa

Chikalatachi chimapereka chidziwitso chokwanira cha Mankhwala a Inorgania Masamba, Kuphatikizira zinthu zawo zofunika, kuchuluka, ndi ntchito zowonjezera pamafakitale padziko lonse lapansi. Kafukufukuyu amayang'ana pa magulu asanu: zidulo, malo, mchere, oxidiwa, ndi mgwirizano. Imasanthula ziphunzitso za kalasi iliyonse, kuphatikiza orthenius, Brøsted-Owry, ndi malingaliro a Lewis, kupanga chingwe cholumikizirana chogwirizana. Kusanthula kumapitilira kufunikira kwa zinthu izi m'magawo ofunikira ku Economies, monga migodi ku South America ndi South Africa, Kulima ku Southeast Asia, ndi makampani olemera ku Russia. Pofotokoza mwatsatanetsatane mankhwala ophatikizidwa ndi mndandanda wapadera ngati sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, ndi ammonium nitrate, Lembali likuwunikira maudindo awo pakupanga, Kasamalidwe kwachilengedwe, ndi zinthu zomwe sayansi. Chikalatacho chikufuna kukhala zofunikira kwa ophunzira, akanchito, ndi oyang'anira ogulitsa, Kulimbikitsa kumvetsetsa mwakuya kwa dziko la mankhwala omwe amasankhidwa ukadaulo wamakono ndi zomangamanga. Zimalimbikitsa njira zogwirira ntchito ndi kufunikira kwa zinthu zapamwamba kwambiri zamakampani.

Makandulo Ofunika

• Mankhwala a avoric amaphatikizidwa ndi mitundu yonse yosagwirizana ndi ma hydrogen.
• Makalasi asanu akuluakulu ali acid, malo, mchere, oxidiwa, ndi mgwirizano.
• Ntchito ndizofunikira m'mafakitale a padziko lonse lapansi ngati migodi, ulimi, ndi kupanga.
• Mankhwala osokoneza bongo a Incansic pamndandanda amathandizira kusankha zinthu zoyenera.
• Kugwirizanitsidwa koyenera kwa mankhwalawa kumafunikira zida zapamwamba za labotale ndi chidziwitso.
• Izi ndizofunikira kwenikweni kwa njira ngati chithandizo chamadzi ndi catalysis.
• Kumvetsetsa zomwe zimayambitsa zatsopano mu sayansi ya zinthu zakuthupi.

M'ndandanda wazopezekamo

• 1. Mitundu ya itorganic acids: Omanga mafakitale a mafakitale
• 2. Dziko la Inorganial: Zothandizira za kusalowerera ndi chilengedwe
• 3. Chilengedwe cha Mchere: Mapangidwe a Crystalline amakono
• 4. Mawonekedwe a otuwa: Kuchokera ku kutumphuka kwa dziko lapansi kupita ku mphaka mafakitale
• 5. Zingwe za mgwirizano wogwirizana: Mtima wa Catalysis ndi Moyo
• Nthawi zambiri mafunso (FAQ)
• Mapeto
• Maumboni

1. Mitundu ya itorganic acids: Omanga mafakitale a mafakitale

Kuti muyambe kufunsa kudziko la mankhwala ogwiritsa ntchito zachilengedwe ndikufufuza zomanga zomwe zakhalapo. Zinthu zomwe zimagwera pansi pake sizimangolemba zomwe zangolowa; Iwo ndi othandizira pakusandulika kwa dziko lathu. Mosiyana ndi mankhwala olengedwa, zomwe zimafotokozedwa ndi kuvina koopsa kwa kaboni ndi hydrogen, Makina ophatikizira amafanana ndi gawo lonse lazotsalira. Iwo ndi michere yokokedwa padziko lapansi, mipweya ya mlengalenga, ndi malo oyambira omanga mafakitale afakitale, zamawu, ndi njira zachilengedwe. Munthawi imeneyi, Mwinanso palibe gulu lomwe lili ndi mphamvu kwambiri ngati acid. Kutha Kwawo Kupereka Protoni kapena Kulandila Maawo Ogulitsa Electron amawapangitsa kuti azithandizira, wokhoza kusungunula zitsulo, Kuyendetsa Bwino, ndikumenya zomwe timadalira. Kuzindikira Acid si gawo lochita maphunziro; Ndilofunikira kwa aliyense amene akuchita sayansi ya zakuthupi, Kupanga mafakitale m'mafakitale a Southeast Asia kuti ithandizirenso ku Migodi ya South Africa.

Kutanthauzira inorganic acids: Malingaliro Atatu

Kumvetsetsa ma acidi omwe amafunikira maulendo kudzera mu chisinthiko cha mankhwala. Matanthauzidwe amodzi amatsimikizira kuti sakukwanira kujambulitsa mikhalidwe yonseyo yowonetsera. M'mala mwa, Tiyenera kuganizira zamisala zitatu zowonjezera, Iliyonse yopereka maditi omwe angaone ndikumvetsetsa mawonekedwe acidic. Malingaliro aliwonse amamanga pa omaliza, Kupanga kumvetsetsa koyenera komanso kosagwirizana.

Malingaliro oyamba komanso odziwika kwambiri ndi a Svante aresthenius. Pazaka zake za m'ma 1800, Adafunsa acid ndi chinthu chomwe, Mukasungunuka m'madzi, Kuchulukitsa ndende ya ma hydrogen ions (H +). Ganizirani za hydrochloric acid (HCl). Ikalowa m'madzi, imasungunuka pafupifupi mu hydrogen ion ndi chloride ma ions (Cwere-). Kutulutsidwa kwa H + Ions ndi chizindikiro cha Adhnius ad. Tanthauzo ili ndilosavuta komanso lolosera kwambiri kwa ma acid osiyanasiyana m'matumba am'madzi. Imapereka tanthauzo lowongoka chifukwa chothetsera zinthu izi ndi zowawa ndipo zimakhala ndi zowawa zowawa (Ngakhale munthu sayenera kulawa mankhwala). Komabe, kukula kwake ndiko kudalira madzi ngati zosungunulira. Nanga bwanji zanzeru mu media kapena gawo la gasi? Chiphunzitso cha orchenius agwera chete pano.

Kuthekera kumeneku kunapangitsa kuti chitukuko cha BRICNY-Owry 1923. Johannes Broneted ndi Thomas Owliner adapanga tanthauzo lalikulu: asidi ndi proton (H +) wapereka. Kukonzanso kwamtunduwu komwe kumamasula lingaliro la acidity kuchokera kumadzi. Chikhalidwe cha acidic cha acidic tsopano ndi malo osangalatsa okhudzana ndi kuthekera kwake kupereka proton. Muzochitika pakati pa hydrogen chloride gasi ndi ammonia gasi kuti apange amonium chloride, HCL amapereka proton mpaka nh3. Ndi Tanthauzo la Bronsted-Lowry, HCL ndi asidi, ndi ammonia, Wovomereza Protoni, amatanthauziridwa ngati maziko. Chiphunzitso ichi chimayambitsa lingaliro lokongola la conjugate acid-base. Pomwe acid amapereka proton, Mitundu yomwe yatsala ndi malo ake a conjugate. Pamene maziko amalandila proton, Mitundu yomwe imapangidwa ndi ya conjugate acid. Izi ziwonetserozi zimafotokoza momwe zimakhalira ndi zomwe zimachitika, kuvina kopatsa ndikulandira komwe kumatanthauzira mankhwala ofanana.

Koma, Ngakhale mawonekedwe owoneka bwino awa ali ndi malire. Zina zimachitika ziwonetsero za acidic popanda kusintha kulikonse. Ganizirani Zomwe Zimachitika Pakati pa Boron Triflooride (Bf3) ndi ammonia (Nh3). Pano, Palibe ma protoni omwe amasinthidwa, komabe watsopano, Chokhazikika chimapangidwa. Apa ndipomwe chiphunzitso cha Lewis, ofunsidwa ndi Gilbert n. Lewis, amapereka malingaliro owoneka bwino kwambiri. Acid a lewis imafotokozedwa ngati malo ovomerezeka. Mu bf3 ndi nh3, a boron atomu mu bf3 ali ndi octet osakwanira ma elekitoni, Kupanga icho 'electron-yopanda kanthu.’ Atom a nayitrogen mu ammonia ili ndi ma elekitoni a eleki. Amoni a Amoni amapereka elekitoni, kupanga mgwirizano wogwirizana. Bf3, Malo ovomerezeka a electron, ndi acid a acid, pomwe NH3, Wopereka magetsi, ndiye Lewis Base. Kutanthauzira kumeneku kumakulitsa banja la asidi modabwitsa kuphatikiza mipata yambiri yachitsulo ndi mamolekyulu ena ofooka, omwe ali pakati ku catalysis mu malonda a petrochemical, mwala wapafupi wachuma.

Zitsanzo Zodziwika ndi Mphamvu zawo zamphamvu

Kusuntha kuchokera ku malingaliro kupita, Timakumana ndi Tikans of Fairfir. A Mankhwala a Inorganiac mankhwala sangakhale osakwanira popanda othandizira awa. Katundu wawo sakudziwa; Ndi chifukwa chomwe amagwiritsa ntchito. Tiyeni tikambirane osewera ochepa.

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4): Nthawi zambiri amatchedwa 'mfumu ya mankhwala,’ voliyumu ya sulfuric ya sulfuric ndi chizindikiritso choyambirira cha nyonga ya dziko lapansi. Ndi wamphamvu, diprotic acid, kutanthauza kuti mutha kupereka ma proton awiri. Katundu wake wodabwitsa kwambiri, kupitirira acidity yake, ndi gawo lawo ngati wothandizira wanzeru. Ili ndi ubale wolimba wamadzi womwe umatha kuvala hydrogen ndi ma atomu a oxygen mwachindunji kuchokera kwa mamolekyu ena, ngati shuga, kusiya kuseri kwa mtundu wakuda wa kaboni wakuda. Mphamvu yokhumudwitsa iyi imamangirizidwa m'makailosi ambiri zamankhwala. Poyamba, Ndi wothandizira wambiri wa oxiding, Makamaka ikatentha komanso yokhazikika, Kulola kuti zichitike ndi zitsulo monga mkuwa, zomwe zimagonjetsedwa ndi acids ena. Ntchito zake ndi Legion, Koma kugwiritsa ntchito kofunikira kwambiri ndikupanga feteleza wa phosphate, njira zofunika pa ulimi wapadziko lonse, Kuchokera ku minda yayitali ya South America kupita kunjira youmirira yakum'mawa kwa Southeast Asia.

Nitric acid (Hni3): Chotupa kwambiri komanso chopondera, Nitric acid ndi mwala wina wapadera wa makampani opanga mankhwala. Ndi wothandizira wamphamvu wambiri, Kutha kusungunula zitsulo zambiri, kuphatikiza siliva. Zomwe zimachitika ndi zitsulo ndizosiyana ndi asidi monga HCL chifukwa ndiye nitrote ion (NO3-), osati haidrojeni ion, zomwe zimachitika ngati wothandizira woyamba wa oxiding. Katunduyu ndiofunikira pakupanga ammonium nitrate, feteleza wa nayitrogeni ndi gawo limodzi la zosakanikirana zambiri zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito mu migodi ndi zomanga. Kutha kwake kutchulanso zinthu zachilengedwe ndi maziko opanga chilichonse kuchokera ku nylon kumatumba ngati zophulika. Kugwirizira mosamala a Nitric Acid kumafunikira zida zamankhwala zamankhwala chifukwa cha kukhazikika kwake kwamphamvu ndi mpweya wa naitrogen oxide okutira.

Hydrochloric acid (HCl): Pomwe amapezeka pamtundu wazofalitsa m'mimba mwathu kuti zigudutsidwe, Mafakitale a RDrochloric acid ndi mankhwala ogwirira ntchito. Ndi wamphamvu, monoprotic acid imaperekedwa ngati yankho la madzi. Ntchito yake yoyambirira ya mafakitale ili mu 'acid acid,’ Njira yochotsa dzimbiri (ma oxade a chitsulo) kuchokera ku chitsulo chisanachitike, Mwachitsanzo, Mwa galvanizing kapena zokutira. Amagwiritsidwanso ntchito popanga chloric chlorides, kwa ma P, komanso m'makampani azakudya kuti akonze zinthu monga madzi a chimanga. M'mafakitale a mafuta ndi gasi, Amagwiritsidwa ntchito mu njira yotchedwa 'Meding’ Kulimbikitsa kupanga kuchokera ku zitsime ndikusungunuka mchere m'thanthwe.

Phosphoric acid (H3po4): Ofooka kuposa acids atatu omwe atchulidwa pamwambapa, phosphoric acid (kapena orthophosphoros acid) ndi acid acid. Sizikhala ngati zoopsa kapena zowopsa, zomwe zimalola kuti zizigwiritsidwa ntchito pogwiritsa ntchito pogwiritsa ntchito malonda oposa ndalama zolemera. Gawo lofunikira kwambiri, chofanana ndi sulfuric acid, ali mu feteleza wopanga, Makamaka akupanga katatu superphosphate. Komabe, chilengedwe chake chotsika ndi chilengedwe chake chimapangitsa kuti likhale loyenera kugwiritsa ntchito zina. Amawonjezeredwa ku zakumwa zozizilitsa kukhosi kuti mupereke tangy, kununkhira kwakuthwa. Imakhala ngati chotseka dzimbiri, imagwiritsidwa ntchito mwachindunji ku chitsulo chodalirika kuti musinthe chitsulo oxide mu phosc phossate zokutira. Ilinso chofunikira kwambiri m'khoma mwa mano komanso ngati electrolyte mu maselo ena mafuta. Kupanga njira yake yosiyanasiyana kumawonetsa kuti kufunikira kwa asidi sikuti nthawi zonse kumakhala ndi mphamvu yake yopanda pake koma m'malo mwake.

Ntchito zamakampani ndi zofunikira kwambiri

Zothandiza za ma acid sizili zofanana padziko lonse lapansi; Ntchito zawo zimagwirizana kwambiri ndi zochitika zachuma ndi zigawo zosiyanasiyana. Kumvetsetsa za malonda apadziko lonse lapansi m'makamwa, wina ayenera kuyamikira anthu awa.

Ku South America, Makamaka m'maiko ngati Chile ndi Peru, Makampani opanga migodi ndi gulu lalikulu lachuma. Pano, sulfuric acid ndizofunikira. Amagwiritsidwa ntchito potchedwa Heap Toaching kuti atulutse mkuwa kuchokera ku ores otsika. Milu yayikulu ya oponderezedwa ndi oletsedwa ndi madzi a sulfuric acid yankho, zomwe zimasungunula mchere wamkuwa, Kulola mkuwa kuti uchotsedwe kumodzi. Njirayi yapangitsa kuti pakhale zothandiza kuthana ndi michere yambiri yomwe ingafanane.

Ku South Africa, Nkhaniyi ndi yofanana, ndikuyang'ana pamkuwa ndi ma unium, Komwe Acid Proaching ndiukadaulo wofunikira. Makampani ogulitsa a dziko lapansi amapanganso kufunikira kwa ma reagents. Mwachitsanzo, Kusakaniza kwa eschka, Kuphatikiza kwa magnesium oxide ndi sodium carbonate, imagwiritsidwa ntchito kudziwa zambiri za sulufur, Njira yoyendetsedwa ndi zomwe acidic sulfur oxisisi amapangidwa mukamayaka. Kupezeka kwa mawonekedwe apamwamba Othandizira Mankhwala ndikukwaniritsa ntchito yogwira ntchito ndi chilengedwe chotsatira izi.

Kusunthira Kulingalira Kwathu ku Russia, Ndi malo ake olemera, Hydrochloric ndi sulfuric acids ndi zipilala zake za metalgical. Kutulutsa kwachitsulo ndi gawo lofunikira pakupanga zitsulo zapamwamba kwambiri pomanga, zamagalimoto, ndi mafakitale odzitchinjiriza. Mitengo yayikulu ya feteleza wa dziko lonse lapansi imadaliranso kwambiri pa sulfuric yonse ndi nitric acids kuti igwire ulimi wanyumba ndi kutumiza kunja.

M'chuma chomata chakum'mawa kwa Asia, monga Vietnam, Thailand, ndi Malaysia, Mapulogalamuwo ndi osiyanasiyana. Makampani ogulitsa magetsi amafunikira ma acidity apamwamba kwambiri oyeretsa silicon. Makampani ofunikira a m'chigawocho ndi makampani apepala amagwiritsa ntchito ma asidi kuti agwetse liggen mu prg zamkati. Poyamba, Pamene kuchuluka kwa kuchuluka, Kufunika Kwa Njira Zazithandizo Zamadzi, zomwe nthawi zambiri zimaphatikizapo kusintha kwa ma acid, imayamba kukhala yofunika kwambiri.

Pomaliza, ku Middle East, pomwe chuma chimakhala chodziwika ndi mafuta ndi mpweya, Atorganic acid amatenga mbali yothandiza kwambiri. Hydrochloric acid amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga mafuta bwino, Ndipo sulfuric acid imagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati chothandizira m'magulu a ma alkylation m'magulu ogulitsa kuti apange mafuta octane. Bungwe logwirizana ndi derali limadaliranso mankhwala omwe amachokera ku chakudya choyambirira.

Chitetezo, Kusamalira, ndi kufunika kwa zida zabwino

Mphamvu yayikulu ya ovorganic acids imayenera kulemekeza kwambiri pakugwiritsa ntchito kwawo. Chilengedwe chawo chitha kupangitsa kuti mankhwalawa azitentha kwambiri pakhungu ndi maso ndipo amatha kuwononga matrakiti opukutira ngati mpweya. Olimba ma acid ngati nitric acid amatha kuchita zachiwawa ndi zinthu zachilengedwe, Kuyika chiopsezo chachikulu chamoto. Choncho, kugwiritsa ntchito zida zoyenera (PPE)-Malo osagwirizana ndi acid, Splash zigamba, Nkhope, ndi zovala - sizokambirana.

Kusunga ndi Kuyendetsa zofunika kumatha kupirira zomwe angathe kuchita. Izi zikutanthauza kugwiritsa ntchito ziweto zopangidwa kuchokera ku zida zokhala ngati polyethylene (Hdpe), galasi, kapena chitsulo chokhazikika. Zida zamankhwala zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito popopera, Kusakaniza, Kubwereza ma acidina awa ayeneranso kusankhidwa mosamala. Mapampi okhala ndi ziwalo zonyowa zopangidwa ndi oyang'anira kapena ma polima ndizofunikira kuti apewe kulephera kwadzidzidzi. Mpweya wabwino, kuphatikiza kugwiritsa ntchito mabood a Hoods mu labotale, ndikofunikira kuti muletse zolimbitsa thupi zowopsa.

Mtundu wa ma acid okha ndiwonso chinthu chofunikira kwambiri. Zopanda pake zimatha kubweretsa mavuto osafunikira, Zogulitsa zomaliza zomaliza, Ndipo nthawi zina, pangani zoopsa za chitetezo. Zofunsira m'magetsi kapena zamagetsi, 'Seagent Grass’ kapena 'pakompyuta’ ma acid okhala ndi milingo yotsika kwambiri ya zitsulo ndi zodetsa zina zimafunikira. Izi zikutsimikizira kufunika kokhala ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo omwe amatha kupereka ma satifictures pofufuza ndikuwonetsetsa kuti muchepetse. Kaya wina akukonzekera labotale ya yunivesite kapena chomera chachikulu cha mafakitale, Kugulitsanso ku APARD-HIPARANS KWAMBIRI NDIPONSO KUGWIRITSA NTCHITO, kudalirika, ndi kukhulupirika kwa chinthu chomaliza.

2. Dziko la Inorganial: Zothandizira za kusalowerera ndi chilengedwe

Ngati asidi ndi opanga zosinthika ndi kusintha, Kenako zoyambira ndizantchito yawo yofunikira, kusagalima, ndi synthesis. Mu nkhani yayikulu ya mankhwala, Maziko amapatsa mphamvu acidity, Kuchita nawo gawo lofunikira lomwe limatanthawuza mawonekedwe osawerengeka ndi mafakitale: kulowererapo. Kuti mupeze malo oyambira a itorganic ndikuwulula ma chemistry kumbuyo kwa mawonekedwe a sopo, Kuyeretsa Madzi, ndi kupanga zinthu zofunika monga mapepala ndi aluminiyamu. Ndiwo machenjera’ acids, Ndipo kuyanjana kwawo ndi gwero la mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Monga ndi acid, Kumvetsetsa kokwanira komwe timayang'ana kopitilira tanthauzo limodzi ndikuyamikira maudindo awo osiyanasiyana padziko lonse lapansi, Kuchokera kudera lopanga Southeast Asia kupita ku malo othandizira madzi ku Middle East ndi South Africa.

Kumvetsetsa Zoyambira: Ulendo wofanana wa Tanthauzo

Malingaliro oganiza bwino omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito pofotokozera acid omwe ali ndi zithunzi zomwe zimalongosola zoyambira. Izi ndi imodzi mwazinthu zokongola kwambiri za acid-band chemistry. Chiphunzitso chilichonse chimapereka chidziwitso pang'onopang'ono cha zomwe zikutanthauza kuti chinthu chikhale choyambirira.

Chiphunzitso chochedwa, Ndi cholinga chake pamankhwala am'madzi, kutanthauzira ngati chinthu chomwe chimawonjezera ndende ya hydroxide ions (Oh) Mukasungunuka m'madzi. Chitsanzo chapamwamba ndi sodium hydroxide (Naoh). Pamene zilonda za Naoh zimasungunuka m'madzi, Amasungunuka mu sodium (6. +) ndi hydroxide ma ions (Oh). Kumasulidwa kwa oh- Ion ndiye gwero lazomwe zimapangidwa ndi zigawo za arthenius, monga kukoma kowawa, kumverera poterera (Chifukwa cha sakani ya mafuta pakhungu), ndi kuthekera kotembenuza Red Litmus pepala labuluu. Matanthauzidwe awa amagwira ntchito bwino pazitsulo, Koma imalephera kufotokoza mawonekedwe a zinthu ngati ammonia (Nh3), zomwe sizikhala ndi unit ya hydroxide mu njira yawo.

Chiphunzitso cha Brons-Owry chimalimbikitsa nkhaniyi posintha mawonekedwe a ma ions hydroxide ma proptons. Mu mawonekedwe awa, maziko ndi proton (H +) wolandila. Tanthauzo lakelo likufotokozera chifukwa chake Ammonia ndi maziko. Ammonia akasungunuka m'madzi, Molekyu ya Ammonia imatha kuvomera proton kuchokera ku molekyulu yamadzi, kupanga amonium ion (NH4 +) ndi hydroxide ion (Oh). Mu izi, Amoni ndi Bronsted-Wotsika, ndi madzi, popereka proton, amachita ngati bronensted-owry acid. Kupanga ma ydroxide ma ions ndi zotsatira za zomwe mwachita, osati mawonekedwe a maziko omwe. Tanthauzo lambirili limatilola kuzindikira mamolekyulu ambiri ndi ma ayos ngati zitsulo, Malingana ngati ali ndi mphamvu yovomereza Proton, nthawi zambiri ndikukhala ndi ma elekitoni a ma elekitoni.

Chiphunzitso cha Lewis chimapereka tanthauzo lalikulu komanso lofunika kwambiri. Base ya Lewis ndi wopereka ma elekitoni. Kuwongolera uku kumayendetsa mpaka gwero lalikulu la chilengedwe: kupezeka kwa ma elekitoni a ma elentince omwe amapanga covale yatsopano. Gasi, ndi ma elekitoni ake a ma atomu a nayitrogeni, ndi gawo labwino la Lewis. Hydroxide ion (Oh), Ndi mlandu wawo wosautsa ndi awiriawiri pa oxygen, ilinso ndi dzina lakale la Lewis. Chiphunzitso ichi chimazungulira owny ndi B Brøct-Owry-Lowry komanso chimaphatikizapo mitundu yomwe mwina siyingakhale yodziwikiratu ku matanthauzidwe ena. Mwachitsanzo, chloride ion (Cwere-) imatha kukhala ngati lewis maziko a electron atcheza ku zitsulo kuti apange ion. Lingaliro ili ndiye maziko a chemistry ya mgwirizano ndipo ndizofunikira kuti mumvetsetse machitidwe a metals ndi ma enzyme.

Zitsanzo zazikuluzikulu kuchokera ku mankhwala ochulukirapo

Mndandanda wa mafakitale ofunikira a maluwa ndi ambiri. Izi ndizokhudza, ofunika kuti atengedwe ndi kuthekera kwawo kuwongolera pH. Tiyeni tiwone ena mwa mamembala otchuka kwambiri.

Sodium hydroxide (Naoh): Amadziwikanso kuti caustic soda kapena yulu, sodium hydroxide ndi malo amphamvu kwambiri. Ndi yoyera, Zolimba, Nthawi zambiri amagulitsidwa ngati pellets, Flakes, kapena ngati njira yothetsera magazi. Ndiwosowa kwambiri ndipo imatha kuchititsa kuti mankhwalawa. Kugwiritsa ntchito kwake koyambirira kuli mu makampani ogwirizira ngati arfict ndi pH. Ndilofunika kwa kayendedwe kake kapepala, komwe kumathandizira kuphwanya liggen ndikulekanitsa ma cellulose kuchokera ku mitengo. Amagwiritsidwa ntchito kupanga mchere wa sodium ndi zotchinga ndipo ndi chofunikira kwambiri mu sapusi yopanga sopo kuti ikhale yopanda mafuta ndi mafuta (triglycedes) mu glycerol ndi mafuta acid acid (sopo). Amagwiritsidwanso ntchito munthawi yoyenga kuti ayeretse Bauxite Ore ku Alumu (aluminiyumu oxide), chimbudzi cha zitsulo za aluminium. Izi zimapangitsa Naoh njira yamakono yamayiko okhala ndi aluminium yofunika kapena mapepala.

Potaziyamu hydroxide (Landi): Nthawi zambiri amatchedwa caustic potashi, Potaziyamu hydroxide ndi ofanana kwambiri mu zinthu za Naoh. Ndi maziko olimba komanso owononga kwambiri. Nthawi zambiri zimatha kugwiritsidwa ntchito mosiyanasiyana ndi Naoh, Imakhala ndi ntchito zapadera zomwe zimakonda. Mwachitsanzo, Amagwiritsidwa ntchito kupanga 'sopo wofewa’ ndi sopo yamadzimadzi, zomwe zimakonda kukhala zosungunuka kwambiri kuposa anzawo a sodium. Ndilo electrolyte mu mabatire a alkaline. Pakupanga chakudya, Amagwiritsidwa ntchito polembera mankhwala ndi masamba komanso ngati wothandizira. Ndilonso cholowa chopanga mchere wina wa potaziyamu, zomwe ndizofunikira paulimi ndi malonda.

Calcium hydroxide (Ca(O)2): Amadziwika kuti ndi laimu, calcium hydroxide imawerengedwa, Koma kusungunuka kotsika m'madzi kumatanthauza kuti mayankho ake ndi ochepa kwambiri. Imapangidwa ndikuchiza calcium oxide (wachangu) Ndi madzi mu njira yotchedwa 'akumenya.’ Ndiwotsika mtengo kuposa Nahoh kapena koh, Kupanga maziko a kusankha kwa ntchito zazikulu zomwe solubility yosafunikira siyofunika. Kugwiritsa ntchito kwakukulu kuli m'madzi ndi chithandizo chamadzi, Komwe imawonjezeredwa ngati malo oyandikana ndi kukweza PH. Paulimi, Amagwiritsidwa ntchito 'laimu’ nthaka ya acidic, Kukweza pH kwa oyenera kwambiri kukula kwa mbewu. Ndi gawo lalikulu la matope ndi pulasitala mu malonda omanga, komwe imakumana ndi kaboni dayokisi mlengalenga kuti apange calcium carbonate, Kulimbana ndi nkhaniyi.

Gasi (Nh3): Amoni amagwira ntchito yapadera ngati maziko ofooka omwe ndi mpweya kutentha kwa firiji. Woyamba, komanso wopambana, Kugwiritsa ntchito ndikupanga feteleza wa nayitrogeni. Kudzera munthawi ya haber-bosch, nayitrogeni kuchokera kumlengalenga amaphatikizidwa ndi hydrogen kutulutsa ammonia, yomwe ikhoza kusinthidwa kukhala ammonium nitrate ndi urea. Njirayi ndi imodzi mwazinthu zofunikira kwambiri zopangidwa ndi mafakitale, Kuthandiza kudya chakudya kwa gawo lalikulu la anthu. Amoni amagwiritsidwanso ntchito ngati mpweya wokhazikika (gawo lomwe linakhala likufuna kuyambitsa ma freens), Kupanga kwa nitric acid, Ndipo monga malo wamba m'banjamo (ammonium hydroxide).

Udindo wa Maziko Opanga ndi Chilengedwe

Kugwiritsa ntchito zoyambira zochulukirapo ndi nkhani ya chilengedwe ndi kukonzanso. Ndikofunikira kuti alenge dziko lathu lamakono monga akuyenera kuyeretsa.

M'makampani opanga zinthu, makamaka ku Southeast Asia, gawo la mabasi limakhala lalikulu. Makampani am'mapepala ndi mapepala, Woyendetsa wachuma wofunika m'maiko ngati Indonesia, imadalira sodium hydroxide kuti mugwiritse ntchito nkhuni. M'makampani opanga malembawo, Naoh amagwiritsidwa ntchito munjira yotchedwa wopentedwa, zomwe zimathandizira ulusi wa thonje kuti usinthe, mphamvu, ndi kugwirizanitsa kwa utoto. Kupanga kwa a mitundu yosiyanasiyana yamankhwala, kuchokera pamchere wosavuta ku ma polima ovuta, nthawi zambiri imaphatikizapo gawo lomwe maziko olimba amagwiritsidwa ntchito pochotsa molekyulu kapena kusokoneza acidic acid.

Mwinanso kugwiritsa ntchito mozama kwambiri kwa zigawo ndi ntchito yawo ngati wothandizira madzi. Madzi am'madzi komanso mafakitale nthawi zambiri amakhala acidic chifukwa cha mpweya wosungunuka ngati mpweya wa carbon dioxide kapena mafakitale. Kuchiza madziwo musanatulutsidwe malo ndiovomerezeka. Calcium hydroxide (diime) kapena sodium hydroxide imawonjezeredwa kuti iloweretse acidity iyi. Poyamba, Kuphatikiza kwa maziko kumatha kuthandiza pakuyamwa kwa zitsulo zazitsulo. Pokweza pH, Ambiri osungunuka azitsulo (Monga mtovu, mtovu, kapena cadmium) Fomu Yopanda Mphamvu ya Hydroxide, yomwe imatha kuchotsedwa pamadzi ngati sludge yolimba. Njirayi ndiyofunikira kuteteza chilengedwe mu madera ochulukirapo komanso m'malo migodi pomwe asidi wa asidi wa acid ndi vuto.

Maziko amathandizanso kuwongolera mpweya. '’ ndi mawonekedwe a zida zamankhwala omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito kuti achotse magesi acidic ngati sulufule dioxide (SO2) Kuchokera pa mpweya wamphamvu wa zomera zamphamvu ndi mafakitale a mafakitale. Mu scrubber, Mpweya wa flie umadutsa pang'onopang'ono pawiri, nthawi zambiri calcium carbonate (mwala walayimu) kapena calcium hydroxide (layimu). Maziko a acidic kotero kuti apange mchere wokwanira (calcium sulfite kapena sulfate), Kuchotsa bwino kuchotsedwapo isanatulutsidwe mumlengalenga ndikuthandizira mvula ya asidi. Ukadaulo uwu ndilofunika kwa mayiko ngati Russia ndi South Africa yomwe imadalira kwambiri malasha.

3. Chilengedwe cha Mchere: Mapangidwe a Crystalline amakono

Wina akamva mawu oti "mchere,’ Malingaliro akufama pafupifupi zithunzi zoyera zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kwa nthawi yodya chakudya - sodium chloride. Koma, Mu lexicon ya chemistry, Izi ndi gawo limodzi m'gulu lalikulu komanso losiyanasiyana. Mchere ndi zinthu za ionic zobadwa kuchokera pakati pa asidi ndi maziko. Amakhala chete, Mphamvu zokhazikika zomwe zimapanga pamene mphamvu zokhala ndi mphamvu za kholo lawo ndizoperewera. Chilengedwe cha mankhwala amchere chimadzaza ndi mitundu yambiri ya zinthu, iliyonse yokhala ndi zinthu zapadera za kusungunuka, mtundu, Ndipo kuchitidwa ndi kuchitikitsa kuti iwo asakhale pafupifupi nkhope iliyonse ya anthu. Kuchokera pa feteleza omwe amadyetsa mabiliyoni ku mabatire omwe amalimbitsa zida zathu, Mchere ndi ngwazi zosavomerezeka mu mndandanda wazomwezi. Phunziro lawo limavumbula dziko lokongola la Crystalline komanso zofunikira kwambiri, Kulumikiza uma umisala wa njira yosavuta yantchito yayikulu ya ulimi wa ulimi wa ulimi ndi makampani.

Mtundu wa mchere: Kupitirira acid-base

Pachiyambi Chake, Mchere ndiopanga iyonic yopangidwa ndi mawu (ion yolipira) kuchokera pansi ndi anion (Woopsa Ion) kuchokera ku asidi. Chitsanzo cha Quiniquenter ndi zomwe zimachitika hydrochloric acid (HCl) ndi sodium hydroxide (Naoh). H + kuchokera ku asidi ndi oh- Kuyambira pamunsi kuphatikizapo madzi (H2O), Molekyu yandale. Ma jini otsala, Na i + kuchokera pamunsi ndi ma cl- Kuchokera acid, bwerani palimodzi kuti mupange sodium chloride (Nacl), mchere. Kuchita izi kulojekiti ndi chida champhamvu chongomvetsetsa mapangidwe amchere.

Komabe, Mchere umatha kupangidwa kudzera m'njira zina. Amatha kuphatikizidwa ndi zomwe zimachitika mwachindunji ndi osagwirizana (E.g., Chitsulo chojambulidwa ndi chlorine kupanga chitsulo(III) kloridi), Zomwe zimapangitsa zitsulo ndi asidi (E.g., Zinn Kubwereza ndi sulfuric acid kuti apange zinc sulfate ndi mpweya wa hydrogen), kapena kudzera pakuchotsa kawiri komwe kusamukira kawiri kokhazikika kumaphatikizidwa kuti upange mchere wambiri womwe umakhala ndi yankho (E.g., Kusakaniza siliva nitrate ndi sodium chloride kupanga siva wolimba). Njira zopangidwa zosiyanasiyanazi ndi kusinthika kwa chomangira cha ionic chomwe chimagwira ma crystalline awa.

Gawo lofunikira lamchere mchere ndi machitidwe awo m'madzi. Mcherembiri, Mukasungunuka, kusungunuka m'malo awo. Njira yothetsera vutoli silingakhale losalowerera ndale (cho 7). Acidity kapena chikondwerero cha mchere wamchere zimatengera mtundu wa kholo lake ndi maziko.

• Mchere wopangidwa kuchokera ku asidi wamphamvu ndi maziko olimba (E.g., Nacl kuchokera ku HCL ndi Naoh) atulutsa yankho losayenera.
• Mchere wochokera ku acid ndi maziko ofooka (E.g., ammonium chloride, Nh4cl, kuchokera ku HCL ndi NH3) amapanga yankho la acidic, Chifukwa ammonium ion amachita ngati acid.
• Mchere wochokera ku acid ndi maziko olimba (E.g., sodium acetate, Nach3coo, kuchokera ku Acetic acid ndi Naoh) atulutsa yankho loyambira, chifukwa acetate ion imachita ngati maziko ofooka.
• Mchere wochokera ku acid acid ndi maziko ofooka (E.g., ammonium acetate) adzakhala ndi ph yomwe imatengera zomwe zimakhudzana ndi anion.

Izi sizongopeka chabe; Ili ndi tanthauzo lothandiza kwambiri, Kukopa Momwe Mchere Amagwiritsidwa Ntchito Ngati Buffers, mu sayansi ya chakudya, ndi machitidwe azachilengedwe.

Mbali ya mchere ndi zitsanzo zawo zowoneka bwino

Popeza mitundu yawo yosiyanasiyana, Mchere nthawi zambiri umasankhidwa kutengera anion yawo. Izi zimapereka chimango chothandiza pokonzekera mndandanda wazomwezi wa itorganc ndi kumvetsetsa zomwe zimadziwika.

Chlorides (Cwere-): Banja ili limaphatikizapo mchere wodziwika kwambiri, sodium chloride (Nacl), Chofunika pamoyo ndikugwiritsa ntchito padziko lonse lapansi posungira chakudya komanso monga chakudya chamankhwala cha chlor-alkali, zomwe zimatulutsa chlorine ndi sodium hydroxide. Zina zonunkhira zimaphatikizapo potaziyamu chloride (Kcl), feteleza wamkulu ndi cholowa m'malo mwa nacl kwa omwe ali pazakudya zotsika kwambiri; calcium chloride (CACL2), ogwiritsidwa ntchito ngati de-i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i icames m'misewu yozizira ngati Russia komanso ngati decocant kuti mutenge chinyezi; ndi chilori (Agcl), Chofunika kwambiri chopindika pa kujambula kwachikhalidwe.

Sulfates (So4 ^ 2-): Mchere uwu wa sulfuric acid amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri pamakampani ndi zomangamanga. Calcium sulfate (Casso4) imadziwika bwino ngati gypsum ndi pulasitala ya Paris, Zofunikira zopangira zouma ndi kuponyera. Magnesium sulfate (Mgso4), kapena mchere wa eppom, imagwiritsidwa ntchito paulimi kuti mukonze kuchepa kwa magnesium m'madothi ndi mankhwala monga wounikira. Mtovu(Ii) sulfate (Coso4) ndi mtundu wa buluu wabuluu wogwiritsidwa ntchito ngati fungufu laulimi, Makamaka m'minda yamphesa m'madera ngati South America, ndipo monga electrolyte mu mkuwa woyeretsera ndi kuyika. Aluminium sulfate (Al2(So4)3) ndi wothandizira mankhwala ofunikira, Kuchita ngati coagulant kuti ikhale yopanda pake, kuwapangitsa kuti azitha kuchotsa posefera.

Nitrate (NO3-): Mchere wa nitric acid amafotokozedwa ndi kusungunuka kwawo kwamphamvu m'madzi ndi udindo wawo monga othandizira ma okoma. Ntchito zawo zofunikira kwambiri ndizomwe. Ammonium nitrate (Nh4no3) ndi potaziyamu nitrate (Kno, kapena mchere) ali ndi feterogen-ma feteleza, Kuyendetsa mbewu kumabweretsa dziko lonse lapansi. Kutha kwawo kumasula mpweya wotenthetsa kumawapangitsanso kukhala magawo ofunikira mu zosakaniza zophulika za migodi ndi ku PYYtechnics. Siliva nitrate (Agno3) ndi lokonzanso yosiyanasiyana, cholowa ku mankhwala ena siliva, ndipo ali ndi ma antiseptic.

Galimoto (C3 ^ 2-): Mchere uwu wa Carboctic acid ndizambiri mu kutumphuka kwa dziko lapansi. Sodium carbonate (Na2Co3), kapena phulusa la koloko, ndi mankhwala okwanira mafakitale omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga galasi, Zoyala, ndi mankhwala ena. Calcium carbonate (CACO3) ndiye gawo lalikulu la miyala yamiyala, mabo, ndi choko. Amagwiritsidwa ntchito pamlingo waukulu ngati chinthu chomanga, Popanga simenti ndi laimu, komanso monga chowonjezera cha calcium. Zomwe zimachitika ndi ma asidi kuti apange mpweya wa kaboni dioxide ndi mayeso apamwamba kwambiri komanso njira yofunikira mu geology ndi makampani.

Maphapha (Po4 ^ 3-): Monga mchere wa phosphoric acid, Ma phosphalites ndiofunikira kwa moyo ndi ulimi. Kugwiritsa ntchito koyamba kwa mwala wa phosphate, zomwe zili ndi calcium phosphate, ndikupanga feteleza wa phosphate ngati tramu superphosphate. Sodium phosphates, monga ma trisdium phosphate (Tsp), anali kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ngati othandizira oyeretsa ndi ofewetsa madzi, Ngakhale kugwiritsa ntchito kwawo tsopano kumangolekeredwa m'magawo ambiri chifukwa cha zovuta zachilengedwe za ma algal amamasula m'madzi am'madzi (leulu).

Ntchito pamasewera a anthu ambiri

Zofunikira za mchere zimayamba kukhala moyo wamakono m'njira zomwe nthawi zambiri zimakhala zosawoneka koma nthawi zonse zimakhala zofunika kwambiri. Maudindo awo amawombedwa ndi mitundu yawo yachilengedwe komanso yakuthupi.

Paulimi, Kutha kwa dziko lapansi kudyetsa yokha ndi yodalira mwachilengedwe mchere wopanda mafuta. The 'NPK’ Muyezo pa thumba la feteleza limatanthawuza ku macronutrients a macronutrient omwe amafunikira ndi mbewu: nayitrogeni (N), Zkosphorous (Tsa), ndi potaziyamu (K). Izi zimaperekedwa pafupifupi mawonekedwe amchere: ammonium nitrate wa nayitrogeni, potaziyamu chloride ya potaziyamu, ndi monocalcium phosphate wa phosphorous. Malonda apadziko lonse lapansi pazinthu izi ndizazikulu, Kulumikiza Migodi ya phosphate ya ku Middle East ndi North Africa Ndi malo akuluakulu aku South America ndi Southeast Asia.

Mu gawo la mphamvu yosungira, Mchere uli pamtima za ukadaulo wa batri. Batri imagwira ntchito ndi kusuntha kwa ion (zomwe zimachokera ku mchere kusungunuka mu electrolyte) pakati pa electrodes awiri. Mabatire a lithiamu, Ndi mphamvu yanji yochokera ku ma smartphones amagetsi, dalira pa mchere wa lithiamu (Monga Lithiam Heithofluophosphate, Lipf6) kusungunuka mu zosungunuka zolimbitsa thupi. Kuchita ndi chitetezo cha mabatire awa kumadalira chiyero ndi mchere wamchere wa electrolyte.

Mu mankhwala ndi biology, Mchere ndiwofunikira. Saline yankho (0.9% sodium chloride m'madzi) ndi Isotonic ndi magazi a anthu ndipo amagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati mitsempha yam'maso kuti mudziwe odwala. Mchere zosiyanasiyana umagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati zosakaniza zothandizira mankhwala, monga magnesium sulfate ngati mankhwala ofewetsa tuya kapena lithiamu ngati kusuntha kwa mawonekedwe. Matupi athu amadalira kwambiri ma ions (Elemalyte) 29.9 Naol |, K +, CA2 +, ndi- kwa mitsempha, minofu yotsutsana, ndikusunga osmotic yoyenera.

M'makampani, Mapulogalamuwa ali ndi malire. Mchere umagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati othandizira, Monga fluxes mu metalligy kuchotsa zosafunikira, monga zigawo zina mu ceramic glazes, monga othandizira apakati pamakampani, komanso monga zowonjezera zowonjezera kuti musungidwe (kuchiritsa nyama), kununkhira, ndi mawonekedwe. Laboratory yodzaza bwino idzakhala ndi mchere wambiri pamashelefu ake, Monga momwe ndi zinthu zoyambira zomwe zimachitika chifukwa chamankhwala osawerengeka komanso amagwira ntchito monga mfundo zofunika komanso zowunikira. Kusankha kwa zodzikongoletsera zina zantchito nthawi zambiri kumabwera kudzasankha mchere ndi kuphatikiza koyenera kwa ntchito yomwe ilipo.

4. Mawonekedwe a otuwa: Kuchokera ku kutumphuka kwa dziko lapansi kupita ku mphaka mafakitale

Kusanthula gulu la oxides ndikuchita ndi mankhwala omwe amapezeka kwambiri padziko lapansi. Oxide ndi gawo lomwe lili ndi atomu yocheperako komanso imodzi mwazinthu zina mu njira yake ya mankhwala. Kuchita kosavuta kwa chinthu chomwe chikugwira ndi mpweya wabwino monga kukhazikika kwa chitsulo kapena kutentha kwa nkhuni - kumapangitsa kuti zinthu zitheke ndi zinthu zofunika kwambiri. Oxisisi amapanga maziko omwe amatumphuka kwa pulaneti, kuphatikiza kuchuluka kwa miyala ndi michere. Iwo ndi agalu omwe ali ndi utoto wa utoto kwa Milleninia, zopindika zomwe zimateteza danga la data polembanso, ndi semiconductors pamtima wa digito. Khalidwe lawo si lonolithic; Imatulutsa mawonekedwe athunthu kuchokera kucidic mpaka a amphongo, Kusiyanasiyana komwe kumayambira chifukwa cha chinthu chomwe mpweya wabwino umalumikizidwa. Kumvetsetsa mawonekedwe awa ndikofunikira kuti mutsegule zofunikira zawo m'minda ngati zosiyana ndi zomangamanga, zamagetsi, ndi catalysis wamba.

Dziko losiyanasiyana: Osiyira ma oxide ndi mankhwala

Zomwe oxide wokhala ndi madzi amakhala ngati maziko agawika, kuwulula mtundu wake wa mankhwala. Khalidwe ili ndi zotsatira mwachindunji za kusiyana kwa electronegataliver pakati pa oxygen ndi chinthu china, ndi mtundu wa mgwirizano pakati pawo. Izi zimabweretsa magulu akulu akulu a oxides.

Oxides oxides: Izi zimapangidwa mwanjira inayake, makamaka chitsulo cha alkali (Gulu 1) kapena alkaline nthaka yachitsulo (Gulu 2), Mangani ndi mpweya wabwino. Zitsanzo zimaphatikizapo sodium oxide (Na2o), potaziyamu oxide (K2o), ndi calcium oxide (CAO). Izi ndi ionic m'chilengedwe. Akamachita ndi madzi, amapanga zofananira zofananira, maziko. Mwachitsanzo, calcium oxide (wachangu) amagwira mwamphamvu ndi madzi opatsa thanzi hydroxide (diime): CAO + H2O → Ca.(O)2. Chifukwa chake, Oxisiks oxis adzachita ndi acid kuti apange mchere ndi madzi, Munthawi yakale. Kuyambira kwawo kumapangitsa kuti azithandiza kugwiritsa ntchito ngati mankhwala acidic nthaka kapena kuwononga ma inshuwaradi a acidic.

Acid oxides: Izi nthawi zambiri zimapangidwa ngati osakhudzidwa ndi mpweya wabwino. Zitsanzo zodziwika bwino zimaphatikizapo kaboni dayokisaidi (Ce2), sulufule dioxide (SO2), ndi phosphorous pentoxide (P2o5). Izi zimadziwika ndi zomangira za Covale. Akamachita ndi madzi, amapanga asidi (oxyacid). Carbon Dioxide imasungunuka m'madzi kuti apange carbonic acid (H2co3), Gwero la Acidity wofatsa m'zomera zamoto. Sulufule trioxide imakumana ndi madzi kuti apange sulufuric acid (H2SO4), gawo lalikulu la mvula ya asidi. Acid Oxidic, panthawi yake, tengani ndi zokutira kuti apange mchere ndi madzi. Katunduyu amagwirizanitsidwa mu dongosolo la mafuta, Komwe mankhwala oyambira amagwiritsidwa ntchito kuti 'atuluke’ Acid Oxidic ngati so2 kuchokera ku mpweya.

Oxider oxides: Gulu losangalatsali la oxizis limawonetsa mawonekedwe awiri, kukhala ngati acid mukakhala pamaso pa maziko olimba, komanso ngati maziko pomwe pamaso pa acid. Mawu akuti 'amrhoterric’ amachokera ku liwu lachi Greek loti 'onse awiri.’ Katunduyu ndiwofanana ndi ma okonloids kapena zitsulo zina pafupi ndi malire pakati pa zitsulo ndi zosafunikira patebulo la nthawi. Chitsanzo chotchuka kwambiri ndi aluminiyumu oxide (Al2o3). Ndi acid acid ngati hcl, Zimakhala ngati maziko: Al2o3 + 6HCL → 2ALALCL3 + 3H2O. Ndi maziko olimba ngati Naoh, imagwira ntchito ngati asidi, kupanga ion yovuta: Al2o3 + 2Naoh + 3H2O → 5na[Nsomba(O)4]. Zitsanzo zina zimaphatikizapo zinc oxide (Zno) ndi mtovu(Ii) oxidie (Chibwano). Kutalika kwa zinthu kameneka kuli kofunikira ku Metallirgy ndi chothandizira.

Andale oxis: Gulu laling'ono koma lofunikira la oxides silikuwonetsa chizolowezi chofuna kuchita ndi ma acid kapena zitsulo. Sali acidic kapena ayi. Zitsanzo zodziwika bwino ndi nitrous oxide (N2o), Amadziwikanso ngati mpweya wosenda; nitric oxide (Ayi); ndi carbon monoxide (Con). Pomwe angakane mitundu ina yazomwe zimachitika (Mwachitsanzo, Carbon monoxide ndi wabwino kwambiri wochepetsera wothandizira komanso gawo lalikulu la synthesis gasi), Sakugwirizana ndi gulu la acid-base. Mankhwala awo am'mankhwala munkhaniyi amawasiyanitsa.

Ooxines ndi magwiridwe awo ochulukirapo

Mindandanda yazomwe imagwiritsa ntchito mankhwalawa imalamulidwa ndi okosijeni omwe ali ndi zipilala zamakampani, zamakompyuta, ngakhale geology. Kuchuluka kwawo komanso zinthu zapadera zimawapangitsa zinthu zofunika kuzipanga.

Silicon Dioxide (Sio2): Zili bwino ngati silika, Oxi, awa ndi amodzi mwazinthu zambiri zomwe zimapezeka kwambiri padziko lapansi. Ilipo m'njira zambiri, onse makristane (monga quartz) ndi amorous (ngati galasi). Kuuma kwake, malo osungunuka, ndi kuwonekera kuwunikira kumapangitsa gawo lalikulu lagalasi. Silika woyeza kwambiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito kupanga ulusi wowoneka bwino womwe umapanga msana wa mafoni apadziko lonse lapansi. Mu mawonekedwe ake a Crystalline, quartz, Mphamvu zake pizoelectric zimagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga oscillatotors olondola kwambiri oscillator olondola a mawotchi ndi zida zamagetsi. Ndi gawo lalikulu lamchenga, Kupangitsa kukhala kofunikira pakupanga konkriti ndi matope. Makampani amagetsi ku Southeast Asia amadalira kwambiri disili la ultra-choyera, yopangidwa ndi kuchepetsa sicon dioxide, kupanga tchipisi a semiconduct.

Ma oxade a chitsulo (Fee2o3, Feya4): Izi ndizomwe timadziwa ngati dzimbiri. Pomwe nthawi zambiri zimawoneka ngati vuto la kututa, oxasines a chitsulo ndi othandiza kwambiri. Ndilo Gwero Loyambirira la Zitsulo Kuti Akakhale Achitsulo; ORRE ORRA imapangidwa kwambiri ndi hematite (Fee2o3) ndi maginito (Feya4). Amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ngati utoto wotsika mtengo komanso wocheperako - kuchokera ku our ofiira omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito pojambula zithunzi zamakono, zokutira, ndi konkriti wokongola. Magnetic katundu wa Magnetite amagwiritsidwa ntchito posungira maginito ngati matepi ndi ma disks ovuta, komanso mu ferrofluids.

Aluminiyumu oxide (Al2o3): Otchedwa alumina, Oxide otuwa iyi ndi zinthu zolimba komanso zokhazikika. Gwero lake loyambirira ndi bauxite, komwe kumatulutsidwa kudzera munthawi ya bayor pogwiritsa ntchito sodium hydroxide. Alumina ambiri omwe amapangidwa ndiye amaletsedwa kuti apange chitsulo cha aluminium. Komabe, mawonekedwe ake ngati ceractic ndiofunikanso. Kulimba kwake kumapangitsa kukhala kopambana kwambiri, ntchito mu sandpaper ndi zogulira mawilo. Malo ake osungunuka ndi magetsi ogwiritsa ntchito magetsi amapangitsa kuti ikhale yoyenera yopaka ma cular ndi ma canni apamwamba. Mawonekedwe a alumina, mowa, ndi mwala; Ndi zodetsa, Amapanga ziphuphu (buluwu, kuchokera ku chitsulo ndi titanium) ndi rubers (chofiira, Kuchokera ku Chromium).

Calcium oxide (CAO): Amadziwika kuti ndifulumira, Ichi ndi mankhwala opangira katundu wopangidwa pamlingo waukulu wothira miyala yamiyala (calcium carbonate) Mu kiln. Ndi chofunikira pakupanga simenti. Zomwe zimachitika ndi madzi ndizokwera kwambiri ndipo zimatulutsa laimu (calcium hydroxide), zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kuchitira mankhwala a acidic, yeretsani shuga, ndi kupanga mitundu ina. Munthawi yopanga, laimu imawonjezeredwa ngati chimfine kuti muchite ndi kuchotsa zonyansa ndi zodetsa za phosphate kuchokera ku chitsulo chosungunula.

Titanium daoxide (Tio2): Oxide iyi mwina ili ndi utoto wofunikira kwambiri padziko lapansi, yofunika kuyera kwake, Mlozera Wotsika Kwambiri, ndi opacity. Imapezeka pachilichonse kuchokera pa utoto ndi zipuzi za pepala, sunscreen, ngakhale kukongoletsa kwa chakudya. Kutha kwake kutulutsa radiation ya UV kumapangitsa kuti ikhale yofunikira yophika mu Dunscreens, Kuteteza khungu ndi Kuwonongeka kwa Dzuwa. Ilinso ndi Photocatalyc, kutanthauza kuti mutha kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zopepuka kuti ithandizire kusintha kwamankhwala. Uku ndikuwunikidwa pakugwiritsa ntchito mawindo odziyeretsa ndi mpweya womwe amatha kuthyola zoipitsa.

Oxisisi pazinthu zapamwamba za sayansi ndi geology

Udindo wa oxilis umafikira mpaka kudera la mafakitale ogwiritsa ntchito mafakitale a ukadaulo wapamwamba. Katundu wawo wosiyanasiyana ndi maziko a zinthu zamakono.

Mu ceramics, Oxisiks ndi atherour. Zirconium Dioxide (ZRO2), Mwachitsanzo, imagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati yovuta kwambiri, Spiramini yolimbana ndi ntchito yogwiritsa ntchito ngati ma denol zitsulo ndi mipeni ya mpeni. Kukula kwa maulendo apamwamba kwambiri m'ma 1980s kunali kokhazikika malinga ndi Copypper Copy, monga Jtttrium barium mkuwa oxide (YBCO). Zinthuzi zimataya zonse zamagetsi pansi pa kutentha kwina, Kutsegulira kuthekera kwa kufalitsa mphamvu ndi mapangidwe amphamvu kwa makina a Mri ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono.

Ku Catalysis, oxisis ndi maboma. Amatha kukhala ngati othandizirana kapena monga amathandizira pazachitsulo chochulukirapo. Vadium Pentoxide (V2o5) ndi chothandizira zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito polumikizana ndi sulfuric acid. Otembenuza othandizira pagalimoto amagwiritsa ntchito mawonekedwe a ceramic (nthawi zambiri amapangidwa ndi chingwe, aluminium iron aluminil cyclosulil) yokutidwa ndi catalystay yamtengo wapatali ngati platinam ndi palladium, koma othandizira okha, Nthawi zambiri amakhala ndi oxissis ngati cerium oxide (CEO2), Imagwira ntchito yolimbikitsa yopititsa patsogolo zomwe zimatembenuza mpweya wopota kuti zisawonongeke zinthu zosavulaza.

Mwakoleji, oxisis ndi nkhani ya dziko lathuli. Kusiyana kwa dziko lapansi kunapangitsa kuti michere yamiyala yonyansa yamile. Mtundu wa mwala womwe umapezeka m'dera, Kaya ndi Granite (Wolemera ku Sio2) kapena basalt, amalengeza zamoyo wam'deralo wam'deralo ndi zothandizira mchere. Kafukufuku wa michere, omwe ali oxidis ndi mchere wina wa inderan, ndizofunikira kuti tiyembekezere os, Ntchito yofunika kwambiri yazachuma kumadera ngati South America, Ndege Russia, ndi South Africa. Kumvetsetsa mitundu ya mankhwala a migodi iyi ndi gawo loyamba popanga njira zopangira zothandiza kuti athetse zinthu zofunika zomwe ali nazo.

5. Zingwe za mgwirizano wogwirizana: Mtima wa Catalysis ndi Moyo

Ulendo wathu kudzera makalasi akuluakulu a zinthu zachilengedwe tsopano amatibweretsa kumalo ovuta komanso mtundu wowoneka bwino: Zogwirizana ndizokhudza. Ngati asidi, malo, mchere, Ndipo oxides akuimira zipilala zam'madzi za mankhwala osokoneza bongo, Kenako makina ogwirizana amayimira zovuta zophatikizika komanso zogwira mtima kwambiri zomwe zimamangidwa. Zosakaniza izi, Amadziwikanso ngati zitsulo, khalani ndi chitsulo chapakatikati kapena ion yolumikizidwa ndi mamolekyulu ozungulira kapena mamokakyu otchedwa ligands. Amatsutsa kulumikizana kosavuta ndi kubweretsa malingaliro a geometry ya geometry, chisudzi, ndi katundu wamagetsi omwe amayambitsa njira zina zofunika kwambiri pa biology ndi makampani. Kuchokera pa mpweya wogwira ntchito ya hemoglobin m'magazi athu mpaka njira yotsimikizika yomwe imapanga ma pulasitiki amakono, Carcticy Chemistry ndi gawo lomwe katundu wachitsulo umadulidwa ndi mawonekedwe ake. Tsimikizirani m'munsi mu mutuwu ndikofunikira kwa aliyense amene ali ndi chidwi ndi zida zapamwamba, mimoochemin, kapena mafakitale ogulitsa.

Zomanga Zaukulu: Ma atomu apakati ndi ligands

Pamtima pa malo aliwonse ogwiritsira ntchito ndi chitsulo chapakatikati kapena ion. Izi ndi zitsulo zomasulira (ngati chitsulo, mtovu, nickel, kapena platinamu) chifukwa adapeza ma to-azungu omwe amatha kutenga nawo gawo polumikizana komanso chizolowezi chopezeka m'malo oxidation. Zida zachitsulo izi zimakhala ngati Lewis acid, kutanthauza kuti ndi ovomerezeka a ma elekitoni.

Mozungulira zitsulo zapakati ndi ma ligands. Ligand ndi molekyulu kapena ion yomwe ili ndi ma elekitoni osachepera amodzi omwe amatha kupereka ku Central Atomu Atomu (Amadziwikanso ngati chomangira). Mu mtundu uwu wa mgwirizano, Ma elekitironi onse awiri ogawana amachokera ku ligand. Ligands, choncho, ndi zigawo za Lewis. Ma ligands amatha kukhala anyezi ngati chloride (Cwere-), mphwayide (Cn-), kapena hydroxide (Oh). Amathanso kukhala osalowerera ndale ndi awiriawiri, monga madzi (H2O) kapena ammonia (Nh3). Chiwerengero cha mfundo zomwe ligand amagwera pazitsulo za chapakati zimatchedwa mano ake.

• Ma ligands (ngati h2o kapena cl-) mangani ku chitsulo pamalo amodzi.
• Nthawi zambiri ligands (Monga ethylenzensine, H2N-Ch2-C2-NH2) khalani ndi ma atomu awiri opereka ndipo amatha kunyamula pitsulo m'malo awiri, Monga Craw's Claw. Izi zimatchedwa chinyengo, Ndipo zovuta zomwe zimachitika nthawi zambiri zimakhala zokhazikika kuposa zomwe zimakhala ndi ligands.
• Ma ligands a polydenti imatha kumanga mawebusayiti angapo. Chitsanzo chapamwamba ndi Ethyneniaminetraocettic acid (Edta), omwe ali ndi ma atomu asanu ndi limodzi omwe ali ndi ma atomu asanu ndi limodzi ndipo amatha kukulunga kuzungulira zitsulo kwathunthu, kupanga zovuta kwambiri. Edta ndi wothandizila wamphamvu wogwiritsidwa ntchito ngati mankhwala othandizira madzi kuti azitsatira ma ion ion ndi mankhwala kuti azitha kuwononga poizoni.

Kuchuluka kwa atomu opereka mwachindunji ndi chitsulo chapakati ndi Nambala yolumikizirana. Nambala iyi, pamodzi ndi mtundu wachitsulo ndi ligands, amasankha geometry ya zovuta. Ma geometies wamba amaphatikizapo mzere (Nambala yolumikizirana 2), A Tetrahel ndi Grand Forgar (Nambala yolumikizirana 4), ndi octahedral (Nambala yolumikizirana 6). Makonzedwe atatu awa sakusintha; Zotsatira zake mwachindunji zochepetsera kunyansidwa pakati pa ma elekitoni a ligands ndipo ndizovuta ku ntchito yopanga.

Sitilakichala, Mangira, ndi korona

Zomwe zimagwirizanitsa zimawaphatikiza, makamaka mitundu yawo yolimba ndi maginito, sizingafotokozedwe ndi malingaliro osavuta a Valence. Malingaliro Awiri Opambana Awiri Amapereka Kuzindikira Kwambiri: Chiphunzitso cha galasi (CGT) ndi ligand m'munda wa m'munda (Link).

Chiphunzitso cham'munda chimapereka chitsanzo chosavuta koma champhamvu champhamvu. Imagwira ma ligands ngati malo oyipa omwe amalumikizana ndi D-Ortertals a chitsulo chapakati cha inion. Mu chinyezi cha ion, onse a D-Orbitals ali ndi mphamvu zofanana. Komabe, Pamene ligands akuyandikira kuti apange zovuta, Amathamangitsa ma elekitoni mu D-Orbitals. Zoyimira izi si yunifolomu. Muzovuta, Mwachitsanzo, ma ligands amayandikira pa x, y, ndi z nkhwangwa. D-WORDBRALS yomwe imaloza mwachindunji ndi nkhwangwazi (DZIN ndi DX²-Y ²) ndakumana ndi zochulukirapo ndikuwonjezera mphamvu. D-Ortabils yomwe imagona pakati pa nkhwangwa (dxy, dXz, ndi dyz ma trabils) mwapeza kunyadira pang'ono ndikuchepetsa mphamvu. D-Warbitals akugawika m'magulu awiri osiyana. Kusiyana kwamphamvu pakati pa magawo awa kumatchedwa mphamvu yogawanika (D).

Kugawanitsa kumeneku ndi chinsinsi chomvetsetsa mtundu wa zitsulo zamakina. Ngati zovuta zimayamwa, Electron imatha kukwezedwa kuchokera ku D-Erlebil D-Orbital mpaka D-Orbital. Mphamvu yakuwala yomwe imafunikira kusinthaku kumafanana ndi mphamvu yogawanika, D. Kuphatikiza kumayamwa kwa mtundu winawake, ndipo maso athu amadziwa mtundu wowonjezera. Mwachitsanzo, Ngati zovuta zimayamwa malalanje, idzawoneka yabuluu. Kukula kwa Δ, motero mtundu wa zovuta, zimatengera chindapusa cha chitsulo, dziko lakuti oxidation, ndi, koposa zonse, Mtundu wa Ligands. Ichi ndichifukwa chake kusintha ma ligands ophatikizidwa ndi mkuwa(Ii) Ion akhoza kusintha mtundu wake kuchokera ku buluu (ndi ma ligand amadzi) Kuyang'ana Kwambiri Blue Blue (ndi ammonia ligands).

Chikhulupiriro cha Ligand ndi mtundu wambiri womwe umaphatikizira zinthu za malingaliro ozungulira. Ikuwona kuchuluka kwa pakati pa zitsulo ndi ligand, kupereka chithunzi chokwanira cha chivundikiro cha colon-ligand chomangira. Ngakhale zili zovuta kwambiri, imaperekanso tanthauzo labwino kwa mitundu yonse ya zinthu izi.

Maudindo Ofunika mu nsalu ndi Makampani

Mfundo zachikhalidwe mgwirizano sizikhala ku labotale; ndizofunikira kwambiri kwa moyo ndi ukadaulo.

M'moyo: Moyo momwe tikudziwira kuti sizingakhale zosatheka popanda mgwirizano. Chitsanzo chotchuka kwambiri ndi hemoglobin, mapuloteni m'maselo ofiira omwe amayendetsa mpweya. Pachiyambi chake ndi gulu la Heme, zomwe zimakhala ndi chitsulo(Ii) Ion adagwirizana ndi ligand lalikulu la polydenti amatchedwa ribote. Ndi izi(Ii) Center yomwe imatembenuza molekyulu ya oxygen m'mapapu ndikuzitulutsa mu minofu. Mtundu wosintha kuchokera ku magazi akuda (deoxyhemloglobin) ku magazi owala owala (oxyhemoglobin) Zotsatira zachindunji za oxygen amamanga ku malo achitsulo ndikusintha katundu wake wamagetsi. Ofanana, chlorophyll, pigment yomwe imapangitsa photosynthesis mu zomera, ndi mgwirizano wogwirizana ndi magnesium ion pakati pake. Michere yambiri yofunikira, otchedwa Sanonlonzymesmesmes, khalani ndi ion wachitsulo pamalo awo, Komwe malo ake ogwirizanitsa amapangidwira kuti azigwira bwino ntchito.

M'makampani: Kuthekera kobweza bwino atomu wachitsulo posintha ma ligands ake amapanga mgwirizano wogwirizana ndi othandizirana apadera. A Zegler-Natta, zomwe ndizogwirizana ndi Titanium, amagwiritsidwa ntchito kupanga ma polima ngati polyethylene ndi polypropylene wokhala ndi zomangamanga kwambiri komanso katundu. Mu makampani a Middle East, Platinamu ndi rhenium ma clatices amagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati othandizira ku mafuta osinthira kuti achulukitse kuchuluka kwa mafuta octane. Ferrocene, a “buledi” Kuchulukitsa ndi atomu yachitsulo pakati pa mphete ziwiri za cyclopntadienyl, anali atapeza zopezekazo zomwe zimayambitsa gawo la umministry, Chilango cha Suble chomwe chimakhala cha organic komanso chogwiritsa ntchito. Kupeza kwake kunatseguka khomo la mitundu yambiri ya othandizira ndi zida zatsopano.

Mu mankhwala: Mankhwala ogwirizanitsa apanga zopereka zazikulu za mankhwala. Chitsanzo chotchuka kwambiri ndi Cisplatin, gulu lalikulu la plat, [Tsa(Nh3)2W2]. Ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito pochiza zotupa zosiyanasiyana. Imagwira ntchito pomanga ku DNA mu ma cell a khansa, Kupanga kink mu DNA yomwe imasokoneza zobwezeretsera ndikuyambitsa ma cell. Ofufuzawo amapangidwa mosalekeza zopangidwa ndi zitsulo zatsopano zochokera kuzitsulo zosiyanasiyana kuti zikhale bwino komanso kuchepetsa mavuto. Makina ena ogwirizanitsa amagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati othandizira osiyana mu maginito a Magnetic (M kris). Gadolinium(III) mabala, Mwachitsanzo, amalowetsedwa m'magazi chifukwa chakuwonetsa mawonekedwe a minofu ndi ziwalo zina mu MRI SCAN.

Pozengereza: Kupanga kwa zovuta zogwirizanitsa kwambiri ndi njira yapamwamba yowunikira mankhwala. Mwachitsanzo, kupezeka kwa chitsulo(III) Ion akhoza kupezeka powonjezera yankho la thiocyonate (Scn-), zomwe zimapanga magazini ofiira. Kukula kwa utoto, kuyeza ndi mawonekedwe a spectophotometer, ndizofanana ndi kuchuluka kwa chitsulo. Edta amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri mumitengo kuti mudziwe kuchuluka kwa zitsulo zamatsulo mu yankho, Njira ya muyezo woyeserera kwachilengedwe ndi kuwongolera kwapadera. Kugula kwa masikono oyeza kwambiri ndi mchere wachitsulo ndi chofunikira kwambiri pantchito yowunikira, Kudalira pazinthu zodalirika za malonda a labotale.

Nthawi zambiri mafunso (FAQ)

Kodi pali kusiyana kotani pakati pa inorganic ndi machesi owoneka bwino?

Kusiyanitsa koyambirira kumagona pamaso pa kaboni-hydrogen (C-h) mangira. Chemicr Chemistry ndiye kuphunzira kwa mankhwala omwe ali ndi ma C-H, zomwe zimapanga maziko amoyo. Makompyuta a Intermic amawerengera zina zonse, kuphatikiza mchere, mchere, Zitsulo, ndi mankhwala opanda zingwe za C-H, Ngakhale atakhala ndi kaboni (ngati carbonatu kapena cyansides).

Onse ndi mankhwala owopsa?

Ayi, si onsewo. Pomwe ena azomwe, ngati acid olimba (sulfuric acid) ndi zitsulo (sodium hydroxide), ndizachilengedwe kwambiri ndipo amafuna zida zamankhwala zogwirira ntchito, ena ambiri ndi ofunika kapena ngakhale ofunikira pamoyo. Sodium kolorayidi (mchere wamchere) ndi calcium carbonate (choko) ndizofala, otetezedwa otetezeka.

Chifukwa chiyani ma coornated ambiri ochulukirapo amakhala ndi mitundu yowala?

Mitundu yazipatso yazomwezi, makamaka zitsulo zosinthira, chifukwa cha kapangidwe kake. Mu mgwirizano amapanga, Makina a D-Or-by amagawika m'magulu osiyanasiyana. Pomwe mafuta amatenga kuwala kowoneka, Ma elekitoni amalumpha pakati pa magawo awa. Mtundu womwe tikuwona ndiye kuwala komwe sikunamwa. Mtundu wapadera umatengera chitsulo, dziko lakuti oxidation, ndipo ma ligands ophatikizidwa ndi icho.

Kodi mankhwala opangidwa mwamphamvu kwambiri padziko lapansi ndi ati??

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Nthawi zonse pamakhala mankhwala opangidwa padziko lonse lapansi chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa voliyumu. Mulingo wake wopangidwa umagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati chisonyezo cha chitukuko cha dziko lapansi chifukwa chogwiritsa ntchito ma feteleza, Kuyatsa Petrole, kukonza zitsulo, ndi kuphatikiza kuchuluka kwa mankhwala ena.

Kodi ma cormic amagwiritsa ntchito bwanji mankhwala ogwiritsa ntchito madzi?

Amasewera maudindo angapo ofunika. Maziko ngati calcium hydroxide amagwiritsidwa ntchito kukweza PH ya acidic madzi. Mchere ngati aluminium sulfate kapena fric chloride amagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati coagulants; Ndiwo mtundu wamadzi othandizira madzi omwe amaloza mlandu pa tinthu tating'onoting'ono, kuwapangitsa kuti azikhala limodzi (zungulira) ndikukhazikika, Kusintha Madzi. Oxidizing othandizira ngati chlorine (Ngakhale chinthu, ndi gawo la dziko lamankhwala) amagwiritsidwa ntchito popewa.

Kodi ndingagule mankhwala amodzi a inorganic?

Inde, Mankhwala Omwe Amakhala Kupita ku Makasitomala osiyanasiyana, Kuchokera kuzomera zazikuluzikulu za mafakitale omwe amafuna kuti malo ogulitsira azofufuza akufunika ochepa kwambiri a labotale. Makampani ngati hangdam chem imapereka catalog yayikulu, Kulola kugula zinthu zina kuchokera kuzomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito mokwanira mankhwala pazogwiritsa ntchito zosiyanasiyana.

Kodi 'zowonjezera’ ndipo ndi mankhwala a zinthu?

Chowonjezera (Wothandizira Wothandizira) ndi compound yomwe imatsitsa kusokonezeka kwa nkhope ziwiri kapena pakati pa madzi ndi cholimba. Sopo ndi zotchinga ndizofala zofala. Zowonjezera kuchuluka ndi mankhwala olengedwa, Pomwe nthawi zambiri amakhala ndi mchira wa hydrocarbon (hydrophobic) ndi mutu wolipidwa kapena polar (hydrophilic). Komabe, Njira yopangira sopo (kusazidzana) kumafuna kuyika mafuta opangidwa ndi mafuta owoneka ngati soroganic ngati sodium hydroxide.

Chifukwa chiyani kuli kofunikira kugwiritsa ntchito zida zapamwamba kwambiri zoyera ndi zoponderezedwa?

Mu kafukufukuyu komanso owongolera mafakitale, Kuyera kwa ma reagents ndi ukhondo wa labotale ndi otha. Zodetsa mu mankhwala zimatha kuyambitsa mavuto osafunikira, peretsani zosintha zolakwika, kapena kuipitsa chinthu chomaliza. M'minda ngati zamagetsi kapena zamagetsi, Ngakhale kuchuluka kwa zodetsedwa kumatha kuyambitsa kulephera kwa chipangizo kapena zovuta. Kugwiritsa ntchito zida zapamwamba kwambiri kumatsimikizira kubereka, kulunjika, ndi chitetezo.

Mapeto

Kufufuza kwa mankhwala opangira mankhwala ku Inricambic kumavumbula dziko lapansi, osiyana, ndipo adalumikizidwa kwambiri mu nsalu ya chitukuko chathu ndi dziko lapansi. Kuchokera kwamphamvu kwamphamvu kwa asidi ndi zitsulo zomwe zimayendetsa mafakitale ndi njira yachilengedwe, ku khola, Mapangidwe a crystalline a mchere omwe amathirira minda yathu ndi mphamvu matekinoloje athu, Zinthu izi ndizofunikira. Oxisis amapanga nthaka yomwe pansi pa mapazi athu ndikupereka zida zomangira zomanga ndi zapamwamba zamakono, Pomwe ma geometies okhala ndi mgwirizano wa mgwirizano amagwira zinsinsi zomwe zimakhala zofunikira kwambiri komanso othandizira omwe amathandizira kupanga kumaliamakono. Kuyamikira Kwambiri, adakhazikika mu ziphunzitso za Arthenius, Brøsted-Owry, ndi lewis, zimatipatsa mwayi wopita kutanthauzira mosavuta kumvetsetsa zakuya zamankhwala ndi ntchito. Kwa mafakitale kudutsa South America, Ndege Russia, Southeast Asia, Middle East, ndi South Africa, Mgwirizano wodalirika wophunzitsira mankhwala odziwa mankhwala sikuti ndi nkhani yogula; Ndiwofunika kwambiri pazatsopano, ubwino, ndi chitetezo. Kuphunzira kosalekeza ndi kugwiritsa ntchito kwamankhwala ogwiritsa ntchito mosakayikira kumapitilizabe kupanga tsogolo la zinthu, mankhwala, ndi ukadaulo wokhazikika.

Maumboni

• Atkins, P., kuchokera pa Paula, J., & Mnyamata, J. (2018). Atkins’ Umagwirira ntchito thupi (11th ed.). Oxford University Press.
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